This blog post provides a summary of our i-com article published in August 2024 (Volume 23 Issue 2). The article analyses human-computer interaction (HCI) in science fiction films and shows how collaboration between humans and machines has developed over the last 100 years. It always makes reference to current real technologies. There are also interesting film and series recommendations.
The article begins with a brief review of the 20th century and asks why this analysis is being undertaken. The results of a previous paper [1][2] are summarised to provide context. It then examines key developments in science fiction cinematography and human-computer interaction (HCI) that have taken place since then, as well as recognisable trends in films. The exciting answer: the boundary between man and machine is becoming increasingly blurred. First the humanisation of the machine is considered, then the ‘machinisation’ of humans. Finally, the article speculates on where this development could be heading, albeit with the necessary caution, as predictions could be completely wrong.
The article focuses on cinematic science fiction (films and series), as the visual representation in films has a greater influence on the perception of future technologies than literature. Films are also more likely to be part of visual internet culture, like memes, and easier to recognise than literary quotations. The technologies considered cover a broad spectrum, including robots, chatbots and other current developments, without sharp boundaries. There is a strong focus on the development of AR/VR technologies in recent decades. The aim is to stimulate thoughts and start discussions without providing definitive answers.
New technologies and their ethical implications have always been featured prominently in films [3][4], presumably to show modernity and topicality. However, the understanding of technology and its application was not always accurate and often characterised by misunderstandings. Particularly in the realm of science fiction, technical or physical errors creep in – sometimes deliberately for specific effects, sometimes accidentally – which occasionally spoils the fun for overly fussy nerds. Common inaccuracies include hearing sounds in the vacuum of space or misunderstandings about gravity and mass.
However, filmmakers also have a sense of humour and sometimes poke fun at their own understanding of technology. In ‘Star Trek’, for example, there are absurd scientific concepts such as the Heisenberg compensator or the reinforcement of structural integrity. The science of the 24th century also has a universal cure – there is hardly a disease that could not be cured with 20 mg of inoprovaline.
The main reason for the inaccurate portrayal of technology is probably that the focus was on the plot and technical details were rarely crucial until they were invoked as a ‘plot device’. This is humorously illustrated in the film ‘Galaxy Quest’ (1999), where the ‘Omega 13 Device’ only plays a role at the end.
In the field of human-computer interaction (HCI), there have been remarkable developments in connection with science fiction films and series [5][6]. The ideas of female filmmakers and engineers in the 20th century influenced and inspired each other until they finally converged. In the film ‘Minority Report’ (2002), female engineers and filmmakers worked together in a think tank and delivered a realistic vision of the future.
Previous research
But let’s take a step back and systematically review the overall situation. This story was described in detail in our 2008 conference paper [1], which we believe is one of the first – or perhaps even the first – systematic approaches to classifying the link between science fiction films and human-computer interaction (HCI). Others have picked up on the trend, and we – including one of the original authors – would like to revisit the topic before moving on to the main section, where we expand it to include more recent developments.
The representation of HCI in films depends on various factors: Availability of special effects, budget and relevance of the technology to the plot. Technology is often portrayed more ‘brilliantly’ in films than in reality. Particularly in the field of ubiquitous computing, attempts are made to integrate technology inconspicuously into work processes, while films rely heavily on visual effects. Security and voice interfaces are common themes, with the former often being hacked and the latter being impressive and inexpensive to implement.
There are two main types of presentation: either the technology works flawlessly and shows progress, or there are technical problems that drive the plot forward. These phases of HCI representation in films are not always clearly delineated, and a film can cover several categories.
We distinguish between the following phases of human-computer interaction representation in films, as also shown in (Figure 1):
- Representation/adaptation of contemporary technologies
- Pre-computer era
- Simple technology customisation
- Advanced technology with familiar operating patterns
- Representation of previously unknown technology/mode of operation
- Prediction or inspiration of possible future technology/operation
The phases mentioned here cannot always be clearly distinguished from one another – films can cover several categories at the same time. Even the first serious science fiction film that we examine here cannot be clearly categorised: ‘Metropolis’ (1927) has an absurd notion of HCI, but also includes visionary elements such as video telephony. Another example is the German series ‘Raumpatrouille – Die phantastischen Abenteuer des Raumschiffes Orion’ (1966), which used improvised props due to budget constraints, but remained popular nonetheless.
In ‘Battlestar Galactica’ (1978-1980) and similar productions of the time, current technologies were shown in futuristic settings, which supported the atmosphere of the series. One particularly influential franchise is ‘Star Trek’, which accurately predicted or inspired many future technologies. ‘Star Trek – The Original Series’ (1966-1969) features early depictions of Bluetooth-like headsets, memory cards and the communicator that served as the model for the Motorola StarTAC. Star Trek: The Next Generation’ (1987-1994) also showed early laptops and voice assistants that were later realised.
The film ‘The Time Machine’ (2002) showed advanced digital assistants in the form of a 3D projection librarian. A milestone in HCI representation is ‘Minority Report’ (2002), where filmmakers and technologists collaborated to create a modern vision of an intuitive user interface.
However, the development of the technology continues. Even after 2002, technology has developed faster than anyone could have imagined 20 years ago. The following sections explore what might still be to come in the 21st century.
New focus: Bridging the gap between man and machine
Humanisation of the machine
In this section, we examine the depiction of humanoid robots in science fiction, advances in real-world robotics and the creation of emotional bonds with artificial intelligence. We look at how these elements blur the boundaries between human and machine and the impact this convergence has on society’s interaction with technology.
In science fiction, artificial intelligences are often portrayed as humanoid robots in order to successfully integrate into human society[7]. This design is independent of the motives for which humanoid AIs are created in fictional stories – be it as life partners, household helpers or as a potential next evolutionary step. Robots often serve as a metaphor for real people and are designed to function in human society and interact naturally with humans. Examples of this are the domestic robots Andrew from ‘Bicentennial Man’ (1999) and T.I.M. from the 2023 film of the same name. While Andrew develops the desire for a human life, T.I.M. becomes increasingly manipulative and aggressive, which is more due to the dramaturgy of the films than technical design decisions.
In the real world, Honda marked a milestone in the development of humanoid robots with the introduction of ASIMO at the beginning of the millennium. ASIMO served as a research platform for solving general problems in robotics, such as navigation in natural environments. More than 20 years later, Boston Dynamics has significantly raised the bar in terms of agility with its Atlas platform. Atlas can navigate obstacle courses, dance and perform rough manual labor. Tesla recently unveiled a second-generation prototype of its humanoid robot Optimus, which is characterized by a more aesthetic and human-like appearance and, unlike Atlas, is aimed more at indoor and residential applications.
Science fiction often focuses on the cognitive abilities of humanoid robots while ignoring the real-world, complex, AI-assisted computational processes behind these systems. Examples of this include Data from “Star Trek: The Next Generation” and Isaac from “The Orville”, who are both anthropomorphic to fulfill their roles as science officers on their respective starships. In films such as “Enthiran” (2010), “The Machine” (2013) and the Swedish series “Äkta Människor” (Real Humans) (2012-2014), robots are portrayed as all-rounders, highlighting the boundaries between anthropomorphic robots and functionality [8].
If the film plots are designed in such a way that the respective AIs enter into romantic or sexual relationships with humans, it is all the more important that they authentically imitate human emotional behavior in addition to their appealing appearance. In this context, it is often women who are designed by men as “female robots”, commonly known as “fembots”. A well-known example is Ava from “Ex Machina” (2014). Other films such as “AI Rising” (2018), “Archive” (2020) and “Simulant” (2023) follow similar patterns. The German production “Ich bin dein Mensch” (2021) shows that male robots can also be marketed as perfect partners.
Let’s leave the real-life examples of AI partners aside for the sake of the article’s seriousness. Nevertheless, the question arises as to how we can support the humanization of machines through emotional connections today. If you look around for examples from robotics, Disney has made huge strides here recently by applying the basic principles of its animated films to a little android that looks like something out of a Star Wars movie. The combination of awkward locomotion and playful body language immediately creates an emotional bond with the robot. In contrast, the Ameca robot attempts to imitate human facial expressions, but this is often perceived as alienating due to the high acceptance threshold of the Uncanny Valley. Robotics currently still offers tools that are too crude to close this acceptance gap.
But let’s move away from robotics to fully virtual production to shed some light on developments in this area. Modern game engines offer impressive possibilities for visualizing realistic scenarios. Unreal Engine 5 (UE5) has established itself as the standard in virtual production. The Metahuman plugin enables the creation and visualization of highly detailed, realistic 3D models of human characters that overcome the Uncanny Valley, at least virtually. NVIDIA also combines Metahuman with generative speech AI to enable extremely realistic, context-sensitive conversations.
But with the rise of ChatGPT, it also became clear that text-based interactions with large language models (LLMs) are possible without physical or graphical representation and come close to convincing human interaction. The success of ChatGPT is based on barrier-free access and an intuitive user interface. However, LLMs are not able to solve complex problems or draw logical conclusions, but are trained to understand and reproduce the syntax of the language, but not the semantics. However, because they do this so well and as a matter of course, users assume that the content they provide is true. However, this is a misconception and can be dangerous. It is not for nothing that it says directly below the ChatGPT input line: “ChatGPT can make mistakes. Check important information.”
Misunderstandings, misbehaviour and malfunctions of fictional AIs are also a popular theme in science fiction. The on-board computer HAL9000 from “2001: A Space Odyssey” or J.A.R.V.I.S. from “Iron Man” are often humanized by portraying their malfunctions in a very human way. Avoiding malfunctions and providing expertise are fundamental requirements for the productive use of AI systems. Providers such as OpenAI enable the customization of LLMs by enriching them with additional information and modeling character traits. For example, the assistant simulates emotions, moods and character traits, which is clearly demonstrated in the podcast “Prompts for UX”.
For example, the film “Her” (2013) shows the emotionalization and development of character traits in an AI, in which the protagonist Theodore falls in love with the digital operating system “Samantha”. However, could Samantha’s initial lack of embodiment have been overcome if Theodore had entered her digital world as an avatar? The answer to this question could be given in the following section.
Mechanization of the human being
After examining the humanization of the machine in the previous section, this section deals with the humanization of humans and the increasing blurring of the boundaries between man and machine. The focus here is on the “machinization” of humans, i.e. the transformation of people into digital avatars within computer programs, cyberspace or virtual reality (VR).
One example of this transformation is the film “Ready Player One” (2018), in which users enter the virtual reality of Oasis through VR headsets and embody avatars. This technology enables people to interact with each other and with computer programs in a natural way.
The development of VR began in the 1980s, with the first commercial product, the Virtual Boy from Nintendo (1995), failing due to technical and conceptual weaknesses. About ten years ago, VR experienced a new hype, which initially did not find the expected acceptance. In the meantime, however, VR has established itself in consumer electronics, with current examples such as Meta Quest, Pico, Vive and PlayStation VR, which are technologically advanced and user-friendly.
A new trend is mixed reality (MR), which projects virtual elements into our physical environment, creating a seamless connection between the physical and digital worlds. Apple has set new standards for social immersive experiences with its latest product, the Vision Pro. In science fiction films such as “Anon” (2018) and “Minority Report” (2002), similar technologies are represented by unobtrusive eye lenses that display various pieces of information.
However, the success of VR and MR depends not only on technological advances, but also on innovative content and intelligent applications. The majority of current VR content is in the entertainment and gaming sector, with applications such as Rec Room and VR Chat aimed at building communities. However, the vision of the metaverse has not yet fully materialized, and even large companies such as Meta itself are struggling with the challenge of creating their own and general metaverse (Horizon).
In films such as “Virtual Revolution” (2016) and the “Matrix” series (from 1999), complete immersion in virtual worlds is depicted, with people being logged into the simulations using invasive or non-invasive methods. In “Tron” (1982) and “Tron: Legacy” (2010), the idea is taken further that the physical body no longer needs to exist outside the simulation, as the person is fully integrated into the simulated environment.
Another trend is the re-creation of the deceased using AI [11]. One example is a podcast recorded by Sascha Lobo with an AI-based replica of Einstein. A voice model was trained with archived data from Einstein and a voice clone was created. Another example from South Korea shows how a deceased 7-year-old was simulated in VR to demonstrate the emotional impact of the technology. These developments raise ethical questions, particularly with regard to the use of deepfake technologies in the film industry, where deceased actors such as Carrie Fisher and Paul Walker have reappeared in their iconic roles.
The idea of digitally reproducing consciousness goes far beyond what is possible with current technology. The digital replication of the deceased is based solely on the data left behind and does not represent an actual continuation of the individual self. Instead, it serves as a simulation of the once living person for the bereaved.
The circle closes when an AI or a computer program “breaks out” of the simulation into an artificial body, as in the film “Virtuosity” (1995), in which a digital supercriminal enters the real world in the body of an android.
The future of virtual reality and human-machine interaction is therefore not only dependent on technological advances, but also on innovative content and ethical considerations. The boundaries between man and machine are becoming increasingly blurred, which brings with it both fascinating opportunities and complex challenges.
Where is this development leading?
Our study of human-computer interaction in science fiction films shows a clear trend towards the convergence of man and machine. Artificial intelligence (AI) is often portrayed in humanoid form to interact effectively in human society, whether as domestic robots or science officers. These portrayals reflect the aspiration that these artificial beings can have natural interactions with humans. Since robots in movies are often impersonated by humans, it is assumed that their movements and coordination are simply natural. However, real-life developments of humanoid robots, such as Boston Dynamics’ Atlas or Tesla’s Optimus, show significant technological advances.
Beyond physical anthropomorphization, science fiction attributes human emotional behaviour and intentions to robots, which they can express in a way that humans can understand. Context-sensitive conversations are currently shaping the perception of AI systems in reality. The success of large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT shows that text-based interactions can be persuasive without relying on physical or graphical representations. The popularity of ChatGPT is due not only to the language model itself, but also to its accessible and intuitive user interface. However, unlike the representations in science fiction, large language models are not capable of solving complex problems or drawing logical conclusions, as they provide answers based on probabilities of word sequences. Movies often fail to show the real-world technological challenges and ethical considerations of creating intelligent machines. The misrepresentation of AI capabilities, as in the case of ChatGPT, highlights the need for society to be informed and able to differentiate between the capabilities of AI and human cognitive capabilities.
In addition to the embodiment of avatars in virtual worlds, technologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) and mixed reality (MR) play a crucial role. These technologies blur the boundaries between physical and digital realms, allowing users to interact with digital content in real-world environments or fully immerse themselves in virtual spaces. Recent advances by companies such as Meta and Apple point to potential applications beyond gaming, extending into social and economic domains. Both companies are exploring the integration of VR and AR into social media platforms, communication tools and productivity applications to enhance human interaction and productivity. While science fiction imagines a seamless integration of humans into digital worlds, concepts such as the digitization of consciousness and the simulation of deceased persons are idealized. In these narratives, thoughts are uploaded into virtual environments, enabling a continuation of existence beyond physical death. However, current implementations rely on external data such as social media posts to create digital avatars or simulations. While they capture aspects of personality or appearance, they do not truly replicate conscious experience. Advances in AI and neuroscience could improve the digitization of consciousness and the simulation of human experience. However, ethical and philosophical questions about consciousness, identity and privacy need to be addressed as these technologies advance.
In summary, the convergence of humans and machines in the real world is more complex than often depicted in science fiction films. Technological progress requires not only innovation, but also a deeper engagement with the social, ethical and emotional aspects of human-machine interaction. Science fiction films typically depict specific potential developments, either towards humanoid robots or human avatars in virtual reality, while in our real world, developments occur simultaneously, revealing a nuanced convergence of man and machine. Will we hold meetings in virtual reality in the future while sitting at our desks at home? Or will there be robots in companies or public places that we can remotely control and monitor to participate in the physical world? Or will we even have individual robots that represent us “out there”, similar to the movie “Surrogates” (2009)? There will probably be a colorful mixture of all these possibilities as they arise in real life, not in science fiction. Science fiction can show us people’s diverse fears and hopes about various technological advances so that we can control and regulate developments, but it cannot predict how technology will ultimately evolve [12-14].
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